Blockchain

Development

Internship


**First thing first: the team and the brainy stuff**

Before starting the internship, I wasn’t really feeling nervous as I felt I had a good understanding of the basics of both Solidity and blockchain. Also, my colleague shared some insider information with me regarding the atmosphere, so I wasn’t surprised by the openness of the team and their willingness to help me and the other interns.
Firstly, we slowly studied the stack and the task itself. Then we got familiar and learned to work with the new blockchain technology that enables easier management of smart contracts. We were excited to start developing our own solutions!

Since blockchain is still a quite new technology, you can learn something new about it every day, as long as you know what to search for. Us interns were involved in the whole development cycle starting from the very beginning. First, we went back and forth researching the technologies and deciding which ones would be the best for this project and the internship, before deciding on Scaffold-ETH.

**You’ve heard it several times already: tHErE aRe No STuPid qUEsTioNs!**


![mulan-mushu.gif](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/mulan_mushu_9349847d61.gif)

 

Well, I’m going to say it again, there really are no stupid questions in Suprabit. Around here, everybody is eager to help each other, be it solving a bug or replacing the coffee pod. Don’t waste your time asking yourself “What will they think of me asking many questions or the same question many times?” because nobody will turn their back or roll their eyes at you. They all know the common goal is gaining understanding and moving forward.
 
The atmosphere is chill and most enjoyable. Once you've had enough of the keyboard tapping, you can make your way to our local table tennis station situated inside the office. Ask away, someone will surely join you! (Beware of the boss, you have to let him win, otherwise...).
 
 
**Future opportunities**

The internship program was well planned and adapted to students with or without previous knowledge of blockchain technology. The people were great, and I enjoyed the entire experience. I'm grateful for the things that I’ve learned during the internship and I'm happy that I was able to stay at Suprabit as an employee after the internship had finished. I know that Suprabit will continue to support my growth and make me a better blockchain developer (and a better table tennis player)!
 
![DSC00401-min.jpg](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/DSC_00401_min_4b49f3e364.jpg)



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This summer, I decided to spend my summer-break gaining as much knowledge on blockchain as possible. After a couple of hours of research, a few interviews and one solved solidity smart contract task, I landed my internship at Suprabit.

My Blockchain Internship at Suprabit!

Even among cryptocurrency enthusiasts, non-fungible tokens (NFTs) aren't the most well-known or understood piece of the decentralized ledger system. 
NFTs may seem abstract and difficult to understand, but many applications for these tokens make them essential in the crypto space and beyond. If you're unfamiliar with this type of token, you came to the right place as this post breaks down everything you need to know about NFTs! Give it a read and discover what NFTs are and how they relate to blockchain and cryptocurrency technology.

### What are non-fungible tokens (NFTs)?

Blockchain and cryptocurrency are two buzzwords that have been thrown around for a while now. Although NFTs combine both of these emerging technologies, there's still a lot of confusion about what exactly they are. Keep in mind that even though the NFTs are based on the same blockchain technology as cryptocurrencies, they are not a currency. So let’s get right on it and let’s see what Non-Fungible tokens actually are.

The term non-fungible refers to something that another similar object cannot replace i.e they can only ever be replaced by themselves — or not at all. And that is precisely what makes them unique.  **A non-fungible token (NFT) is a one-of-a-kind digital asset that represents ownership of physical or virtual items such as art, video clips, music, and so on.**  

Simply put, NFTs are digital proof of ownership for any given item. NFTs are securely recorded on a blockchain — the same technology that lies behind cryptocurrencies — ensuring that the asset is unique. To shed some light on the whole thing, let’s have a look at some of the examples of NFTs.

![Picture2.jpg](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/Picture2_45375cdc1c.jpg)
Source: [Instagram (@adamsackstoons)](https://www.instagram.com/p/CVK066CPshA/)

### Examples of NFTs

[Cryptokitties](https://www.cryptokitties.co/), [CryptoPunks](https://www.larvalabs.com/cryptopunks), [Rare Pepes ](http://rarepepedirectory.com/) are all examples of non-fungible tokens.  NFT was first introduced on the Ethereum blockchain protocol as a concept that allows you to mint and trade virtual assets that are unique, but now many other blockchains like Polygon, Cardano, or Kusama, to name a few, have also their own NFT implementations. 

Let’s have a closer look at Cryptokitties, digital cats that have unique genes. Think of them as crypto-collectables. Each is a one-of-a-kind digital asset built on Ethereum's blockchain and entirely owned by you. They can't be replicated, taken away, or destroyed. They can be, however, transferred from one digital wallet to another.

As defined by the Ethereum ERC721 standard, non-fungible tokens like Cryptokitties can be identified via a specific token ID - and only exist once within Ethereum blockchain. 

NFTs are today what football cards were back in the day - the latest collectables. While the latter was traded in person, NFTs are easily bought and sold online. Which, in turn, quickly made them a lucrative business. [The art world particularly profited from the sale of NFTs](https://www.nftsstreet.com/most-expensive-nfts-ranked/). Below are a few examples you probably heard about:

●	[Beeple](https://cryptoart.io/artist/beeple), a digital artist, sold the first purely digital work of art called "Everydays—the First 5000 Days" at Christie's for $69.3 million.
![Picture3.jpg](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/Picture3_42b577f7ff.jpg)
Source: [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everydays:_the_First_5000_Days)

●	For $2.9 million, Twitter CEO auctioned off an NFT of his first tweet.
![Picture4.png](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/Picture4_aadbe91d09.png)
Source: [Twitter (@jack)](https://twitter.com/jack/status/20?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E20%7Ctwgr%5E%7Ctwcon%5Es1_&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnbc.com%2F2021%2F03%2F22%2Fjack-dorsey-sells-his-first-tweet-ever-as-an-nft-for-over-2point9-million.html)

●	At Sotheby's first curated NFT sale, a CryptoPunk NFT was sold for $1.8 million.
![Picture5.jpg](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/Picture5_a062679f34.jpg)
Source: [Twitter (@Sothebys)](https://twitter.com/Sothebys/status/1402996062474760193?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1402996062474760193%7Ctwgr%5E%7Ctwcon%5Es1_&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fmarkets.businessinsider.com%2Fnews%2Fcurrencies%2Fcryptopunk-nft-covid-alien-draftkings-sothebys-auction-fungible-token-2021-6)

●	$208,000 was paid for 20-second footage of LeBron James' "Cosmic Dunk #29."

### How do NFTs work?
To understand NFTs, we could look at fungible and non-fungible items from a financial perspective. Today, most people think of cash as fungible—if I give you a $5 bill and you give me back another $5 bill, nothing really changed in terms of value as all the 5$ bills are the same. We don’t care about the dollar bill as a paper-based physical item, we care only about its value.
In contrast, collectables and antiques provide value as individual units; these kinds of goods aren't interchangeable with others with similar or even the same features (like dollar bills). 
Non-fungible tokens work on blockchains like Ethereum, but they are totally different blockchain assets with different features. 

### How are NFTs used?

There are three main ways NFTs can be used: as collectables, for identity, and ownership. 

**Collectibles** are non-fungible assets that can be owned and traded on NFT marketplaces. 

**Identity** refers to non-fungible personal information about an individual or business, such as educational history or employment background. 

**Ownership** refers to the possession of a physical or digital asset represented by an NFT. By trading NFT you’re actually transferring ownership of those assets. This could include things like real estate, art, intellectual property, etc. 

As time goes on, we will likely see many more creative uses for digital NFTs.

### Difference between cryptocurrency and NFTs

Cryptocurrencies and NFTs both rely on the same blockchain technology. As a result, NFT markets may also compel customers to use cryptocurrencies to acquire NFTs. 
Cryptocurrencies aspire to function as currencies by holding value or allowing you to purchase and sell items. Cryptocurrency tokens are fungible, and comparable to conventional currencies like the US dollar. 
On the flip side, NFTs are tailored to generate one-of-a-kind tokens that may be used to demonstrate ownership and communicate rights over digital products.

### Online exchange and marketplaces to buy NFTs

[OpenSea](https://opensea.io/) and [Nifty Gateway](https://niftygateway.com/) are widely known marketplaces to trade NFTs. With a user base of close to 2 million accounts on OpenSea, it is by far one of the biggest marketplaces for NFTs at the moment. 

**Foundation**: Foundation happens to be an NFTs marketplace, and in order to join the platform, a user must be invited by another user who is already a member.

**Nifty Gateway**: This is an art-focused NFTs marketplace that works with athletes, brands, and creators.

**OpenSea**: When you want to mention one of the largest marketplaces for a wide range of NFTs collectables, you can think about OpenSea.

**Rarible**: If you're looking for an art-focused NFTs platform, Rarible is an ideal choice that rewards members with its own token - RARI.  

### Key takeaways

When you think of cryptocurrencies, your mind surely jumps to Bitcoin and other alt-coins. But blockchain is more than just digital currencies; it's a protocol for creating unique data sets within a network that are time-stamped, cryptographically secured, and immutable. 
In other words, it is also about taking physical assets—diamonds, Picassos, gold, and digital assets like artwork and turning all of them into non-fungible tokens (NFTs). NFTs can be stored on an Ethereum or a number of other public ledgers. Each token would be identified by a unique ID number and tied to everything from value to ownership rights. 
In the future, the idea is that you'll have NFTs representing everything from your passport, driver's license, game collectables, real estate ownership, you name it! So, is there any reason we shouldn't extend the concept of NFT beyond its borders? We think not! Stay tuned and wait to see what the Suprabit team has been working on.

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We want you to enter the world of non fungible tokens! A new type of blockchain based asset is taking some of the well established markets by storm. Find out why and what is our stake in it.

Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) Explained



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<h2> What are embedded systems? </h2>
Embedded systems are computer systems with a specific function within a larger system. This includes all computing systems, such as home appliances, digital watches, cameras, avionics, and medical devices, except for PCs and smartphones. When classifying embedded systems by their main computing component, two of the most common types are microcontroller (MCU) and a microprocessor (MPU/CPU) based systems. There are also DSP, FPGA and custom ASIC-based systems. 


Microcontroller-based embedded systems are typically programmed either without an operating system, known as "bare metal," or with a real-time operating system (RTOS). Microcontrollers are cost-effective, single-chip computers that include a CPU, memory, and input/output capabilities on a single integrated circuit (IC). However, their specifications are limited compared to standard PCs, with less than 1MB of RAM and less than 8MB of flash memory, and typically only one CPU core with a frequency of less than 500MHz. Many 32-bit microcontrollers today are based on ARM Cortex-M CPUs.

In contrast, microprocessor-based systems, which are based on more powerful CPUs such as ARM Cortex-A, run Linux and have specifications more similar to PCs or smartphones. These systems, known as single-board computers, feature RAM, eMMC (flash), and various peripheral chips on the board, rather than on a single IC.

![1.png](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/1_a622eb8f94.png)

While microcontroller-based systems are generally more affordable and energy-efficient than embedded Linux devices, they also have more limited computing capabilities and feature sets. This blog post will focus on the unique characteristics of microcontroller-based embedded systems. However, as part of the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, modern embedded systems are expected to have a range of features such as wireless communication, internet connectivity, and advanced sensors and actuators, all while maintaining cost and power efficiency. Careful consideration of both hardware and software is crucial for the successful design and development of these devices.

<h3> Optimizing power consumption </h3>
When selecting components for a wireless embedded device, it is important to consider factors such as suitability for the intended application, software and community support, market availability and cost. The microcontroller, RF communication chip, and sensors/actuators are the main components to evaluate. Factors like deep sleep functionality, communication interfaces, security options, processing speed, and memory of the microcontroller should all be taken into account to ensure that the device's requirements are met in the most optimal way possible.

<h3>MCU</h3>
Low-power MCUs on the market can typically achieve current consumption below 1 μA in their sleep modes. Some of these include ST's STM32L0xx, Silicon Labs' C8051F98x, Microchip's SAM Lx and TI's MSP430.
In our recent project, we used STM32L051 MCU and in its Stop mode, we were able to achieve 1.3 μA with Low Power Timer and Watchdog running.



 ![Microchip.png](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/Microchip_a7739c6ed3.png)


<h3> RF communication chip </h3>
When choosing an RF communication chip, it's important to select an appropriate wireless communication protocol that takes into account factors such as power consumption, range, and throughput. Factors that will affect the power consumption of the device are protocol frequency (sub-GHz, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, etc.), data packet length, the number of messages being sent within a certain timeframe, and signal power. Operating frequency affects range, power consumption, and throughput. Lower frequencies (sub-GHz) have better range and lower power consumption, while higher frequencies have better throughput. It's essential to keep the number of messages sent within a certain timeframe as low as possible for battery-powered devices, usually 1-2 messages every 10+ minutes. Smaller data packet length increases the throughput and power efficiency of a protocol, as it takes less time to transmit information and keeps the RF transceiver in active mode. With greater power, the range is increased, but so is power consumption. Low-power RF chips on the market can typically achieve current consumption in the nA or few μA range in their sleep modes, making them a good choice for battery-powered devices. In our recent project, we used AX5243 sub-GHz RF chip at 868 MHz with a custom protocol. In its Powerdown mode, we were able to achieve 0.8 μA.

![2.png](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/2_d19cc36535.png)
When choosing sensors/actuators, their idle current consumption should also ideally be in nA or worst-case few μA range.

Besides hardware, software choices and optimizations can also greatly affect the power consumption of a device; choosing the appropriate sleep mode of the MCU and RF chip, minimizing time spent in running mode of the MCU and RF chip, using only the lowest-power MCU timer while the device is in idle mode, setting MCU peripherals in low-power mode, etc.



<h5>Here are some important takeaways from our recent project with STM32L051:</h5>
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<li  style="color:#ffffff">setting all unused GPIOs as analog inputs has reduced average current consumption by a few μA</li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff">ADC needed to be powered off after each measurement, otherwise it would add ~35 μA to average current consumption in sleep mode </li>
<br/>
<li style="color:#ffffff">although Standby mode has the lowest current consumption, in this mode SRAM and register contents are lost and only certain GPIOs can wake up MCU, so we've used Stop mode</li>
<br/>
<li style="color:#ffffff">in Stop mode, LSI is the only oscillator that works (and only timers whose clock source is LSI can work</li>
<br/>
<li style="color:#ffffff">LSI is unprecise, but it can be calibrated using an internal MSI oscillator and more precise e.g. periodic interval measurements can be achieved</li>
</ul> 
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Wireless embedded devices transmit data in periodic intervals and spend the rest of the time in sleep mode, which minimizes the amount of time the microcontroller and RF transceiver are running and consuming power. However, if the running time is too long, it can significantly impact the average power consumption and shorten the device's battery life. To optimize power consumption, it's important to keep the duration of running time to a minimum, whether due to a periodic interval or an interrupt.


<h5>Here are some methods that we've used to minimize the duration of running time: </h5>
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<li  style="color:#ffffff">compiler optimizations</li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff"> removing printfs/serial outputs  </li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff">making sure there's no polling or register flag checking that keeps device in running mode</li>
<br/>
<li style="color:#ffffff">checking whether higher MCU frequency (with higher current consumption, but shorter processing time) is better for power consumption</li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff">using constants/hard coded values instead of calculations if possible</li>
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It's important to select an RTOS mode that is optimized for low power consumption, especially as the number of features increases, as RTOS is often required in such cases.

Finally, tools that we've used to measure current consumption are Otii Arc and a multimeter (just to double-check Otii Arc measurements). Also, it's useful to have measurement ports on PCB for measuring the current consumption of certain components separately (MCU, RF transceiver, sensors).

![pic1.png](https://strapi.suprabit.eu/uploads/pic1_6e7794a3ee.png)


With whole PCB average current consumption being under 5 μA (idle mode consumption below 2.5 μA), these devices can ideally last on one e.g. CR2032 battery (~230 mAh) for more than 5 years.

<h2> Optimizing memory usage </h2>
As projects need to be profitable, prices of the components are very important. But with lower prices, MCUs usually also come with smaller amounts of RAM and Flash memory. For example, STM32L051 has 8 kB of RAM and 64 kB of Flash memory . As the complexity of the application increases and the feature set expands, optimizing memory usage becomes necessary for these microcontrollers.

<h5>Here are some methods of optimizing memory usage that we've used in our recent project: </h5>

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<li  style="color:#ffffff">compiler flags</li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff; opacity: 70%;">we've used GCC's <span style="font-weight:bold">arm-none-eabi</span> toolchain: <span style="font-weight:bold">-ffunction-sections, -fdata-sections, -fno-exceptions, -fno-rtti, -Os, --specs=nano.specs</span> (for using nano version of newlib)</li>
</ul>
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<li style="color:#ffffff">check out functions with the highest memory usage and try to optimize them</li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff; opacity: 70%;">for <span style="font-weight:bold">arm-none-eabi</span> toolchain: <span style="font-weight:bold">arm-none-eabi-readelf -s elf_name.elf</span></li>
</ul>
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<li style="color:#ffffff"> disable unused RTOS features</li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff">remove unnecessary printfs</li>
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<li style="color:#ffffff">remove double and float arithmetic <span style="font-weight:bold">__aeabi_</span>functions if possible</li>
</ul> 
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That wraps up this blog post on memory and power consumption optimization for microcontroller-based embedded systems. We hope it'll turn out to be helpful in your current and future embedded projects too!

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In this blog post, we'll explore various ways of optimizing power consumption and memory usage of wireless embedded devices with examples from one of our recent projects.

My Blockchain Internship at Suprabit!

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Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) Explained

Optimizing power consumption and memory usage of wireless embedded devices